Guangxu Emperor

Zaitian, known as the Guangxu Emperor, was born on August 14, 1871. He was the second son of Yixuan, Prince Chun, and his primary wife Yehenara Wanzhen, who was a younger sister of Empress Dowager Cixi. His paternal grandfather was the Daoguang Emperor of the Qing dynasty.

In 1875, following the death of the Tongzhi Emperor on January 12, 1875, an imperial conference was convened by co-regents Empress Dowagers Ci'an and Cixi. They selected Zaitian, then aged four, as the successor to the Xianfeng Emperor. The selection deviated from traditional succession rules because they favored a candidate from the same generation as Tongzhi to continue the legacy of the previous emperor, and because Zaitian was Cixi's nephew. His father, Prince Chun, was favored for his scholarly reputation and patriotic stance. On February 25, 1875, Zaitian ascended to the throne and adopted the regnal name Guangxu, meaning "continuation of splendor." After this, his personal name Zaitian was no longer used in official contexts.

Beginning in March 1876, the Guangxu Emperor received education under Weng Tonghe, who had previously been involved in the upbringing of Tongzhi, and was overseen by his father. His education included calligraphy, Chinese classics—such as the Four Books—and the languages of Chinese, Mongolian, and Manchu. By 1881, he was reading historical documents, including imperial decrees. He was taught that his main duty was "keeping the state in order" and "maintaining universal peace" consistent with Confucian principles. As a child, the emperor exhibited self-discipline, expressing views on frugality and Taoist philosophy, although he also displayed mood swings and occasional disinterest in daily lessons.

In 1881, catastrophe struck when Empress Dowager Ci'an died unexpectedly. Guangxu was then under sole regency of Empress Dowager Cixi. During this period, he was reportedly distressed and sought comfort from Weng Tonghe. The imperial court was subject to influence from eunuchs and court factions, while Cixi's regency persisted.

In 1884, the Qing Empire engaged in the Sino-French War over influence in Vietnam, which ended in 1885 with significant Chinese losses. These defeats undermined the Qing dynasty's veneer of strength, with subsequent diplomatic setbacks including the end of tributary relations with Burma in 1886 and similar shifts in Korea and Japan. During this period, the Guangxu Emperor, though nominally the ruler from 1887 onward, continued to be overseen by Cixi as regent. He began to participate in court affairs more actively, including making foreign diplomacy visits and issuing edicts, although Cixi retained substantial control.

On March 4, 1889, the Guangxu Emperor married Jingfen, a niece of Cixi, who was then granted the title Empress Longyu. Cixi retired from her regency shortly thereafter, on March 11, 1889, although she continued to wield influence behind the scenes.

The early years of his reign were marked by efforts to modernize, but actual authority remained limited due to Cixi's dominance. During the 1890s, the emperor attempted to follow policies inspired by Qing predecessors like the Qianlong Emperor, seeking to preserve the empire's strength through reforms and diplomacy. However, conflicts over foreign concessions, military defeats such as the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894–1895, and external pressures from Western powers continually challenged the Qing dynasty's sovereignty.

In 1898, the Guangxu Emperor initiated the Hundred Days' Reform, advocating sweeping reforms in government, education, military, and infrastructure, with support from reformist officials Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao. The reforms sought to establish a constitutional monarchy akin to Japan's Meiji Restoration. However, Empress Dowager Cixi opposed these rapid changes, viewing them as a threat to her authority. A coup was orchestrated in September 1898, resulting in the emperor's imprisonment under house arrest in Zhongnanhai. From that point, he was effectively deprived of governing power, though he continued to read, learn languages, and perform ceremonial duties.

During the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, the Guangxu Emperor opposed the use of foreign-backed militias and fled Beijing with Cixi as foreign forces advanced. He spent subsequent years in seclusion, mourning, and study, including learning English.

Guangxu died suddenly on November 14, 1908, at the age of 37, one day before Cixi's death. Post-mortem analysis indicated arsenic poisoning, with forensic tests in 2008 showing high levels of arsenic in his remains. His death remains a subject of speculation, with theories suggesting possible poisoning by Cixi, Yuan Shikai, or other courtiers, although no definitive proof exists. He was buried at the Western Qing tombs in Chongling.

He was childless at his death, and the Qing dynasty ended in 1912, with his designated successor being his nephew, Puyi, who assumed the throne as Xuantong.